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Within the Tigris-Euphrates river system, in the northern Fertile Crescent, is the historical territory of Western Asia known as Mesopotamia. Iraq of today is occupied by Mesopotamia. In a larger sense, the historical area encompassed modern-day Iraq as well as portions of Iran, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey.Our species built the framework for the contemporary world in Mesopotamia. Since they had discovered this lush area, they had been living as hunters and gatherers and moving in search of food. The rivers Tigris and Euphrates were providing those lands with water and alluvium, making Mesopotamia the most suitable place to settle down, build cities, advance farming techniques, domesticate animals as food sources, store food, and sell them among other things.

Before Mesopotamia, humankind was a nomadic hunter-gatherer species. People also existed in several Old World regions, such the Indus Valley in India, the Yellow River Valley in contemporary China, and Peru in the New World. To learn more about that time period, though, there aren't enough ruins in these places. On the other hand Mesopotamia, offers a wealth of discoveries.The Neolithic Revolution began in Mesopotamia around 10,000 BC, where it first took shape. It is credited for inspiring "some of the most significant developments in history of mankind, including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops, and the development of cursive script, mathematics, astronomy, and agriculture." Some of the earliest civilizations on Earth are known to have originated there.

Mathematics in Mesopotamia

Sexagesimal (base 60) numerals were used in Mesopotamian science and mathematics. The 60-minute hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360-degree circle all originate from this. Three seven-day weeks made up a lunar month in the lunisolar Sumerian calendar. Early map-making relied on this branch of mathematics. Theorems on how to calculate the surface areas of various solids and shapes were also known to the Babylonians. They calculated a circle's circumference as three times its diameter and its area as one- twelfth the circumference's square, which is accurate if π (Pi) were set at 3. A cylinder's volume was calculated as the sum of its base's area and height;

The development of a sophisticated arithmetical system by ancient Babylonia, which allowed for algorithmic computation, is where algebra's origins can be found. Temple priesthoods had made an effort to link certain planetary and stellar positions with current events since Sumerian times. This persisted into Assyrian periods, when Limmu lists were produced as a year- by-year correlation of events with planetary placements. If they have persisted to the present, they provide reliable associations of relative with absolute dates for establishing Mesopotamia's history.As highly skilled mathematicians, the Babylonian astronomers were able to foretell eclipses and solstices. In astronomy, experts believed that everything served a purpose. A majority of these had to do with religion and omens. A 12-month calendar based on moon cycles was devised by Mesopotamian astronomers. The summer and the winter were considered the two seasons of the year. Both astrology and astronomy's roots may be traced to this period.

Astronomy in Mesopotamia

The only Greek-Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a heliocentric model of planetary motion was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC).[29][30][31] Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch. He supported Aristarchus of Samos' heliocentric theory where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used (except that he correctly theorized on tides as a result of Moon's attraction).Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of Greek, classical Indian, Sassanian, Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western European astronomy.

Medicine in Mesopotamia

The earliest Babylonian medical literature come from the Old Babylonian period, which took place in the early half of the second millennium BC. The Diagnostic Handbook, however, authored by the ummân, or head scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa under the rule of the Babylonian monarch Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC), is the most comprehensive treatise in Babylonian medicine.

A patient's symptoms and illnesses were treated using therapeutic methods such bandages, lotions, and medicines. Exorcism was frequently used by Babylonian doctors to free a patient of any curses if physical treatment was ineffective. Esagil-kin-apli's Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the contemporary belief that by examining and analyzing a patient's symptoms, it is possible to identify the patient's disease, its etiology, its potential course, and the likelihood that the patient will recover.

Agriculture in Mesopotamia

Additionally, the region's temperature was nearly identical with the temperatures of today; it was sunny (ice age survivors should have been delighted to find it), and the land was fertile thanks to the alluviums delivered by the Euphrates and Tigris. Mesopotamia's agricultural revolutions resulted in human settlement, which then marked the beginning of the construction of the modern world. Mesopotamia appears to have once had everything needed to settle and cultivate. Here, the concept of a "city" was created, and this lush ground is where the modern world's foundational ideas were laid.

Law in Mesopotamia

The first legal codes were written by Mesopotamian city-states, who took inspiration from judicial precedent and royal decrees. It has been discovered the codes for Urukagina and Lipit Ishtar. The most famous of them was that of Hammurabi, who achieved posthumous fame for his collection of rules, the Code of Hammurabi, sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon, (written around 1755 - 1750 BC), one of the first law collections discovered and it is the longest, best-organised, and best-preserved legal text instances of this kind of ancient Mesopotamian. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian. Over 200 laws were codified by him for Mesopotamia. When the laws are examined, they reveal that the rights of women are gradually being weakened and that the treatment of slaves is becoming increasingly harsh.

Up until the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, when it was captured by the Achaemenid Empire, Mesopotamia was ruled by the Sumerians and Akkadians (including Assyrians and Babylonians), who came from various regions of modern-day Iraq. In 332 BC, it was conquered by Alexander the Great, and following his death, it was incorporated into the Greek Seleucid Empire.Although Mesopotamia never completely disappeared, the advanced civilizations that existed there disappeared. The oldest sources of information about Mesopotamia are ancient inscriptions.Mesopotamia is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, Berosus, a Babylonian who wrote in Greek, and Herodotus of Halicarnassus, who lived 100 years after the fall of the Assyrian empire. The Greek philosopher and historian Xenophon, who was present during the Battle of Cunaxa and wrote a description of the final conflict between Cyrus II and the Neo-Babylonian empire, can be included to the list. Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian and cartographer, is thought to have traveled to Tyre, the Euphrates, and Babylon. Herodotus is supposed to have witnessed Babylon firsthand. Then, until the middle of the 19th century, Mesopotamia became a myth, a phenomena among more modern writers. Turkey is one of the best destinations for exploring Mesopotamian civilizations because the majority of its southeastern part of its territory is Mesopotamia and archaeological excavations have been going on since the 30s.

Cappadocia: A Dreamlike Landscape Shaped by Time
Few places on earth are as surreal and magical as Cappadocia, a region in central Turkey known for its otherworldly landscapes, fairy-tale rock formations, and centuries-old cave dwellings. Shaped by natural forces and enriched by human history, Cappadocia is a destination where nature and culture come together harmoniously and unforgettably.
A Land of Fairy Chimneys
Cappadocia's landscape is defined by its fairy chimneys—tall, thin spires of rock that rise like towers from the earth. These geological wonders were formed over millions of years, beginning with volcanic eruptions that blanketed the region in ash. Over time, the ash hardened into a soft rock called tuff, which was gradually eroded by wind and water, leaving behind these remarkable formations.
The fairy chimneys come in various shapes and sizes, some resembling mushrooms or cones, while others stretch high into the sky like ancient minarets. The towns of Göreme, Ürgüp, and Uçhisar are among the best places to witness these stunning formations up close.
A History Carved in Stone
Cappadocia is not just a place of natural beauty—it’s also a region steeped in history. For thousands of years, people have carved homes, churches, and entire cities into its soft volcanic rock. Early Christians sought refuge here, hiding from Roman persecution in underground cities and rock-cut churches. Some of these ancient churches are still adorned with well-preserved frescoes, offering a glimpse into the religious life of the region’s early inhabitants.
One of the most remarkable aspects of Cappadocia is its underground cities, like Derinkuyu and Kaymaklı. These multi-level complexes, some descending more than 60 meters underground, were used as hiding places during times of invasion and conflict. They contain living spaces, storage rooms, kitchens, and even ventilation shafts, showcasing the ingenuity of the people who built them.
Hot Air Ballooning: A Sky-High Adventure
For many visitors, the highlight of a trip to Cappadocia is a hot air balloon ride over the region’s surreal landscape. Every morning, dozens of brightly colored balloons lift off at sunrise, floating over the valleys, fairy chimneys, and ancient cave dwellings. The view from above is nothing short of magical, as the soft morning light bathes the landscape in hues of gold and pink.
Whether you’re seeking adventure or simply want to witness one of the world’s most beautiful landscapes, a balloon ride over Cappadocia is an experience like no other.
Exploring Cappadocia: What to Do
While the region’s unique landscape is reason enough to visit, there’s much more to Cappadocia than just its scenery. Here are some must-see highlights:
Göreme Open Air Museum: This UNESCO World Heritage site features a collection of rock-cut churches and monasteries with stunning frescoes dating back to the 10th and 11th centuries.
Zelve Open Air Museum: Spread across three valleys, Zelve offers a more immersive experience into the cave-dwelling culture, with homes, churches, and communal spaces carved into the rocks.
Uçhisar Castle: This natural rock fortress offers breathtaking panoramic views of the surrounding valleys and fairy chimneys. It’s the highest point in Cappadocia, making it a perfect spot for sunset views.
Ihlara Valley: This lush, 16-kilometer-long canyon is a great place for a scenic hike. The valley is dotted with rock-cut churches and offers a peaceful escape into nature.
Avanos: Known for its pottery-making tradition, Avanos sits along the Kızılırmak River and offers visitors the chance to try their hand at the ancient craft of pottery.
Cappadocia’s Underground Cities: Explore the labyrinthine passageways of Derinkuyu or Kaymaklı, where ancient communities took shelter in times of danger.
Fairy Chimney Valley (Pasabag): This valley is home to some of the most iconic fairy chimneys, including towering, mushroom-shaped formations that seem almost otherworldly.
A Taste of Cappadocia
Cappadocia’s cuisine is as rich and varied as its landscape. Traditional Turkish dishes are infused with flavors unique to the region, making it a gastronomic destination in its own right. Be sure to try testi kebab, a meat and vegetable stew cooked in a clay pot, and mantı, Turkish-style dumplings served with yogurt and spices. Cappadocia is also famous for its local wines, with vineyards stretching across the fertile valleys of the region.
Best Time to Visit
Cappadocia is a year-round destination, but the best time to visit depends on what you want to experience. Spring (April to June) and autumn (September to November) offer pleasant weather and fewer crowds, making it ideal for hiking and outdoor activities. Summer can be quite hot, but it’s still a great time to enjoy the region’s stunning landscapes. Winter brings snow, turning Cappadocia into a serene, white wonderland—perfect for a cozy stay in a cave hotel.
Cave Hotels: A Unique Stay
One of the most unforgettable aspects of visiting Cappadocia is staying in a cave hotel. Many of the region’s ancient cave dwellings have been transformed into luxurious boutique hotels, offering modern comforts while retaining their historic charm. Staying in a cave hotel allows you to fully immerse yourself in Cappadocia’s unique atmosphere—whether you’re enjoying a Turkish breakfast in a stone-carved room or watching the sunset from a rooftop terrace.
Conclusion
Cappadocia is a place where nature, history, and culture collide to create a landscape like no other. Its fairy chimneys, ancient cave cities, and underground wonders make it a destination that feels almost magical. Whether you're exploring its valleys on foot, soaring above it in a hot air balloon, or simply taking in the serene beauty from a cave hotel, Cappadocia will leave you with memories that last a lifetime.
Göreme Open Air Museum: A Journey into Cappadocia’s Past
Nestled in the heart of Cappadocia, the Göreme Open Air Museum is a must-see attraction that offers visitors a fascinating glimpse into the region's rich historical and cultural heritage. Declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1985, this museum is an expansive monastic complex of rock-cut churches, chapels, and monasteries, dating back to the 10th to 12th centuries. It stands as one of the most significant collections of cave churches and frescoes in the world.
A Step Back in Time
Göreme Open Air Museum takes you back to a time when early Christian communities sought refuge in Cappadocia's natural rock formations. The soft volcanic rock of the region allowed early settlers to carve out entire villages, monasteries, and places of worship. This tradition began in the Roman period but reached its peak during the Byzantine era when the area became a spiritual center for Christian monks.
The museum itself is an impressive display of these rock-hewn structures. As you wander through the site, you will discover intricately carved monasteries and churches, many of which still have well-preserved frescoes that depict Biblical scenes. These frescoes, painted using rich pigments, offer insight into the religious practices and artistic techniques of the time.
Key Highlights
Among the many churches within the museum, a few stand out as particularly significant:
The Dark Church (Karanlık Kilise): Named for the lack of natural light, the Dark Church is famed for its vividly colored frescoes. The scenes depicted here, including the Last Supper and the Betrayal of Judas, are remarkably detailed and have remained well-preserved due to the limited exposure to sunlight.
Tokalı Church (Buckle Church): This is the largest church in the museum and houses some of the most beautiful frescoes in Cappadocia. The vivid imagery portrays the life of Christ, from His birth to His resurrection, in a sequence of breathtaking scenes.
The Snake Church (Yılanlı Kilise): Notable for its unusual fresco of Saint George slaying the dragon, the Snake Church also contains depictions of Saints Theodore and Basil. It gets its name from a fresco showing Saint Onuphrius with a serpent at his feet.
Chapel of St. Barbara: This chapel stands out for its more symbolic and less narrative frescoes. The geometric designs and depictions of warrior saints like Saint George and Saint Theodore reflect a different artistic style from the more intricate biblical frescoes found in other churches.
The Monastic Life
In addition to the churches, the Göreme Open Air Museum also contains living quarters, kitchens, and dining halls carved into the rocks. These spaces were used by the monks who lived here in complete isolation, dedicating their lives to prayer, worship, and reflection. The extensive monastic life is a reminder of the museum’s spiritual significance in the Christian world.
Preservation and Significance
Göreme Open Air Museum is not just an architectural marvel but also an important cultural site that provides invaluable insights into medieval Christian life in Cappadocia. The frescoes, though ancient, are carefully preserved to maintain their original vibrancy. Visitors are reminded to respect the fragile environment by not touching the artwork and observing museum guidelines.
Visiting Tips
Timing: The museum can get quite busy during peak tourist seasons, so it’s best to visit early in the morning or late in the afternoon for a more serene experience.
Entrance Fee: There is an entrance fee, and an additional fee if you wish to visit the Dark Church.
Bring Water: The museum is largely outdoors, and the Cappadocian sun can be intense, especially during the summer months.
Wear Comfortable Shoes: You’ll be walking on uneven terrain, so make sure to wear appropriate footwear for exploring the site.
Final Thoughts
Göreme Open Air Museum is a captivating destination for history enthusiasts, art lovers, and spiritual seekers alike. Its rock-carved churches and magnificent frescoes tell the story of a bygone era, while the dramatic landscape of Cappadocia serves as the perfect backdrop. A visit here is more than just a walk through history—it's a step into the very soul of ancient Christian Cappadocia.
Zelve Open Air Museum: Cappadocia’s Ancient Cave Town
In the heart of Cappadocia lies the Zelve Open Air Museum, one of the most captivating and lesser-known historic treasures of the region. While Göreme Open Air Museum may receive more attention, Zelve offers a more expansive and raw look at the ancient cave-dwelling culture. Set across three valleys, Zelve was once a thriving monastic retreat and later a small town, inhabited until as recently as the 1950s. Today, it stands as a living testament to Cappadocia’s unique natural and cultural history.
A Hidden Gem in Cappadocia
Zelve was first settled in the 9th century by early Christians, who took advantage of the soft volcanic tuff to carve out homes, churches, and monasteries. However, what sets Zelve apart is that it was continuously inhabited until the mid-20th century. While many of the cave churches are not as intricately frescoed as those found in Göreme, the site offers a more immersive experience into the daily life of ancient cave-dwellers.
The absence of crowds and the rugged, untouched feel of the site make exploring Zelve Open Air Museum a more intimate experience. As you wander through the maze-like pathways, you can almost imagine what life was like for the people who once called these caves home.
What to See at Zelve Open Air Museum
Zelve’s valleys are dotted with a variety of unique structures carved into the rocks. While churches do exist, Zelve is particularly rich in residential areas and communal spaces.
Rock-Cut Dwellings: Zelve’s numerous cave homes give you a sense of how people adapted to the landscape. Many of the homes are multi-storied, with interconnected tunnels and passageways. Unlike modern homes, the dwellings here are protected from invaders and harsh weather, while blending seamlessly into the natural environment.
Cave Churches: Although Zelve does not have as many frescoes as Göreme, it still contains several important cave churches. The most notable are the Üzümlü Church (Church of Grapes) and the Balıklı Church (Church of the Fish), which feature simple but meaningful carvings and decorations. These churches were important spiritual centers for the early Christian communities who lived here.
The Mill: A fascinating feature in Zelve is the ancient mill, where grain was ground by local farmers. This is one of the many signs of how self-sufficient life in the valley was, with a focus on agriculture and communal living.
Tunnels and Courtyards: One of the best aspects of visiting Zelve is exploring the complex network of tunnels, passageways, and courtyards. The site almost feels like a natural labyrinth, where every turn reveals a new hidden space or breathtaking view. These areas were used for everyday life activities, including storage, cooking, and socializing.
Monastic Retreats: In addition to its role as a residential area, Zelve also served as a monastic retreat. The numerous hermitages and monastic cells scattered throughout the valleys are a reminder of the site’s spiritual significance. Monks lived in solitude in these rock-hewn retreats, dedicating their lives to contemplation and prayer.
Zelve’s Unique History
What makes Zelve particularly interesting is its long history of habitation. It wasn’t just a temporary settlement; it was a living, breathing community for centuries. Early Christians sought refuge here from Roman persecution, but even after the Christian era, the site continued to thrive.
By the 1920s, the population of Zelve was predominantly Muslim, as the Ottoman Empire’s population exchanges led to changes in demographics. The last residents left Zelve in the 1950s due to erosion and the growing danger of rockfalls, which made living conditions unsafe. Their departure marked the end of a millennia-long human presence in the caves of Zelve.
A Visit to Zelve: What to Expect
Zelve is more spread out than Göreme, so a visit here involves quite a bit of walking and exploring. The museum’s three valleys are filled with steep paths and rugged terrain, making it a paradise for adventurers and photographers alike. Here are a few tips to keep in mind:
Wear Comfortable Shoes: The terrain can be rocky and uneven, so sturdy walking shoes are a must.
Bring Water: Especially in summer, Zelve can get quite hot, and you’ll be doing a lot of walking.
Allow Plenty of Time: While you can rush through Zelve in an hour or two, it’s worth spending more time to truly absorb the atmosphere and explore the hidden nooks of the site.
Photography: Zelve’s natural beauty and dramatic landscape make it an ideal place for photography. The caves, cliffs, and valleys create striking compositions, particularly in the early morning or late afternoon light.
The Beauty of Isolation
Unlike some of Cappadocia’s more crowded sites, Zelve retains an aura of isolation and tranquility. The lack of tourist crowds means you can often explore the valleys at your own pace, feeling as though you’ve stumbled upon an ancient secret. This sense of peacefulness makes Zelve a special place for reflection and appreciation of Cappadocia’s natural wonders.
Conclusion
Zelve Open Air Museum is a hidden gem that offers an authentic, unspoiled glimpse into Cappadocia’s past. Its combination of ancient cave dwellings, rock-cut churches, and serene valleys provides visitors with a unique opportunity to step back in time. Whether you're a history enthusiast, a nature lover, or simply looking for a quiet escape, Zelve's rugged beauty and rich history make it an unforgettable stop on your journey through Cappadocia.
Cappadocia's Underground Cities: A Hidden World Beneath the Earth
Beneath the surreal landscape of Cappadocia, where fairy chimneys and rock-carved churches dot the terrain, lies one of the region’s most astonishing and mysterious wonders: its underground cities. These subterranean labyrinths, carved into soft volcanic rock, provided refuge for thousands of people over the centuries. With vast networks of tunnels, rooms, and chambers stretching deep into the earth, Cappadocia’s underground cities are a testament to human ingenuity and resilience.
Why Build Underground Cities?
The underground cities of Cappadocia were built for survival. Dating back to the Hittite period (circa 2000 BCE), these underground complexes were expanded and used by early Christians to escape persecution by the Roman Empire, and later by local populations during Arab invasions. The region’s volcanic rock, soft and easy to carve, allowed entire communities to create sophisticated underground structures.
The cities served as places of refuge during times of danger, where people could hide for weeks or even months. The underground cities were equipped with everything necessary for long-term living—ventilation systems, water wells, storage rooms, kitchens, stables, and even chapels.
Derinkuyu: The Largest Underground City
Derinkuyu, the largest and most famous of Cappadocia’s underground cities, is a marvel of engineering. Discovered in 1963, this ancient city descends over 60 meters (200 feet) into the earth and consists of multiple levels, connected by a maze of tunnels.
Derinkuyu is believed to have housed up to 20,000 people at its peak, including their livestock and provisions. The city had everything needed for survival: communal living spaces, kitchens, wineries, and even a school. Large stone doors, which could be rolled into place, sealed off the city from the outside world in case of attack, while hidden passageways allowed residents to escape if needed.
One of Derinkuyu’s most fascinating features is its ventilation system. A series of vertical shafts allowed fresh air to circulate throughout the city, ensuring that even deep underground, the residents could breathe easily. The city also had access to fresh water through wells that were connected to the surface but kept isolated from potential invaders.
Kaymaklı: A Maze of Tunnels and Rooms
Just a short distance from Derinkuyu lies Kaymaklı, another vast underground city. Kaymaklı is slightly smaller than Derinkuyu but equally impressive, with its narrow tunnels and sprawling rooms spread over eight levels. Like Derinkuyu, Kaymaklı was designed to accommodate large populations for extended periods.
One of the unique aspects of Kaymaklı is its interconnected rooms, many of which serve as communal areas for cooking, eating, and socializing. The city’s layout is designed for security, with narrow, twisting tunnels that could slow down invaders. Stone doors, similar to those found in Derinkuyu, could be rolled into place to block off sections of the city during attacks.
Kaymaklı is thought to have been continuously inhabited through various periods of history, from the Hittites to the Byzantine era. Even today, visiting the city feels like stepping back in time, as you explore the passageways and imagine the lives of those who once called it home.
Life Underground: How Did People Survive?
Life in Cappadocia’s underground cities was focused on self-sufficiency and safety. These cities were built to sustain large populations during times of crisis, and their design reflects the practical needs of living underground.
Ventilation: The air in these cities was kept fresh through a complex system of ventilation shafts, ensuring that even the deepest levels received fresh air.
Food Storage: Large storage rooms allowed for the preservation of food, including grains, dried fruits, and wine, ensuring that residents could survive for long periods without access to the surface.
Water Supply: Many underground cities had wells that were dug deep into the rock, providing a secure water source that was protected from potential poisoning by enemies.
Religious Spaces: Some underground cities, like Derinkuyu, even had churches or chapels, where residents could continue their religious practices while in hiding.
Safety Measures: The narrow tunnels and stone doors were designed to defend against invaders. Only a few people could pass through the tunnels at once, making it difficult for large groups of attackers to navigate the underground maze.
More Than Just Refuge: The Underground Cities as Cultural Centers
While the underground cities were primarily used as places of refuge, they also served as centers of daily life. People carried on with their regular activities—cooking, worshiping, raising families, and producing goods—even while hiding from external threats. The underground cities were not just temporary shelters but vibrant communities where life continued in the face of danger.
Exploring the Underground Cities Today
Today, many of Cappadocia’s underground cities are open to visitors, allowing you to explore these ancient wonders firsthand. Walking through the cool, dimly lit passageways, you can get a sense of what life must have been like for the thousands of people who once sought refuge underground.
Derinkuyu and Kaymaklı are the two most famous and accessible underground cities, with guided tours available to help you navigate their complex layouts.
Tatlarin and Özkonak are smaller but equally fascinating underground cities, offering a more intimate experience for visitors looking to escape the crowds.
Ventilation Shafts and Hidden Doors: As you explore these cities, look for the ingenious ventilation shafts and massive stone doors that provide fresh air and security to the inhabitants.
Conclusion: A Hidden World Beneath Cappadocia
The underground cities of Cappadocia are a remarkable example of human adaptation to challenging environments. These subterranean sanctuaries, carved into the rock by ancient civilizations, served as both homes and havens for thousands of years. Today, they remain a symbol of the resilience and ingenuity of the people who lived in this extraordinary region.
Whether you’re interested in history, or architecture, or just looking for a unique adventure, exploring Cappadocia’s underground cities offers a journey into one of the world’s most fascinating hidden worlds. A visit to these underground marvels will leave you with a deep appreciation for the skill, creativity, and survival instincts of the ancient people who once lived there.

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